Toucouleur Society and Culture

Social groupings	Neighbour relations	Social habits
Family structures	Rule and Authority	Media
Recreation/ Sports	Children, Youth, and Women	Feasts
Cultural Identity	Death and Dying	Weddings
Judicial system		Art forms

There are estimated to be about 1.5 million Toucouleur in the world today. About 900,000 are living in Senegal, 180,000 in Mauritania, and thousands more through out West Africa.

As many as 20,000 Toucouleur are speculated to be living in France, and possibly as many as 130,000 Pulaar speakers throughout other European countries. Popular European destinations include France, Spain, Germany, and Italy. Often expatriates form a very important part of the economical infrastructure of the Futa Tooro region, in that they regularly send money home to the family in Senegal.

The Toucouleur are mostly sedentary crop farmers, but there are also merchants, government officials and intellectuals amongst them.

The Toucouleur are a very proud people. Their ancient heritage as rulers and leaders is still evident today. They like to think of themselves as intellectuals and are know as religious leaders, many Marabouts being Toucouleur or from Toucouleur origins.

It is often said that being born Toucouleur is being born Muslim. Islam is the very fibre of Toucouleur culture and thus, to be Toucouleur is to be Muslim.

The Toucouleur are Muslims at heart, and Islam is a cultural value that permeates all things regarding Toucouleur society. Toucouleur Marabouts, holy-men and Islamic scholars are renowned throughout the West African region.

The ancient Toucouleur leaders and intellectuals of the Tekrur Empire were of the first black Africans to take on the Islamic faith. And subsequently through Jihad (holy war), Toucouleur warriors spread Islam to large parts of the sub-region. To this day the Toucouleur consider themselves the "Defenders of the Faith"!

Near neighbours are the Wolof, Fula, Serer, Kasonke and Soninke in and around the Senegal River valley. There is some competition with the surrounding groups for land. There exist much racial tensions between the Toucouleur and the white Maures in Mauritania.

Authority and power is in the hands of the elders and the men in general; Transitory and Spiritual authority and power are in the hands of the upper cast, the Tooroobe. Toucouleur always group themselves around a Chief or leader (of a village, suburb, town, region, etc.), and Elders govern villages.

High status is attached to membership in a noble lineage or a prosperous family. Leadership in the three major Muslim brotherhoods (Mouride, Tidjani, and Quadiri) has recently assumed importance in status rankings as well.

In Mauritania in 1980 Islamic law was introduced and an Islamic court established.

In Senegal, a secular democratic state granting freedom of religion and association, much of the French legal system is evident and the principles of the western law and legal systems are respected.

The organisation of the Toucouleur society revolves around two main forces - the clan, and the caste system. Of these, the largest form of association and relationship is the clan, subdivided into lineage groups - a sort of extended family. Toucouleur always group themselves around a Chief or leader (of a suburb, town, region, etc.)

The Toucouleur maintain and follow a patriarchal social structure. Community life is highly stratified into a hierarchy of 12 casts, grouped into 3 or 4 social classes.

The first and highest class comprises the chiefs and religious leaders. Most Toucouleur are members of this Tooroobe class. The value of an individual is determined by his cast and not by his riches, fame or any other position in life.

Relationships are of primary importance but social connections are formed on the horizontal within a social class and marriages by example, are never contracted across class lines.

In the caste system, the castes are characterised by hereditary, endogamy and / or professional specialisation. They constitute closed groups and maintain relationships with one another on a hierarchical basis. Social relations, especially questions of domination and subordination are defined essentially by the castes to which people belong.

Membership to a caste is permanent according to your birth irrespective of your achievements. Most Toucouleur of the upper class are very set on caste distinctions. Social mobility in the traditional Toucouleur milieu is non-existent except that slaves become free after the third generation.

There are 12 distinctive castes in Toucouleur society. Within the cast system the Toucouleur society is subdivided into 4 main social strata, each permitted to own slaves. (Legally there are no slaves anymore, but in practice there are those who are kept as slaves, although it is believed they are generally well treated.)

First are the elite "torroobe", who are traditionally concerned with the learning and propagation of Islam. This aristocratic class emerged when the first Tukulor "almami", Suleyman Ball, established the "almamyat" of Tekrur in Futa Toro in 1778.

The middle class, "rimb‚" (which means pure or free), comprise the following: -

The "sebb‚", farmers who, because of the seasonal nature of agriculture, comprise a martial establishment during slack periods and are often referred to as the warriors.

The "dyawamb‚", who are administrators or courtiers and middlemen or tradesmen.

The lower middle class includes the "nyenb", skilled craftsmen and storytellers (Griots in French), musicians and artists.

The lower class is made up of servants and the manual unskilled labourers, which includes the "gallunkob", or slaves.

Slaves are called "gallunkobe‚". Legally there are no slaves anymore, but in practice there are those who are kept as slaves (especially in Mauritania), although it is believed they are generally well treated.

The social structure is highly stratified and is based primarily on male lineage groups, which are usually scattered among several villages.

Each clan embraces all that trace their descent to a common ancestry. Within the clan members owe one another social obligations and responsibilities. Members of a clan group usually occupy the same area and traditionally defend their area against other clans. The head of each clan is often also a big "feudal lord" with considerable political powers.

Over the centuries the clans acquired a measure of autonomy, which was particularly pronounced during the time of the empire, and the Futa Toro became a loose federation of such groups.

Under the influence of Islam the Toucouleur gradually changed from matrilineal to paternally structured society. An example of this is that the wife would come to live at the village of her father-in-law. The typical household comprises father, his sons and grandchildren, their wives, children and sometimes more distant kin. Although the Toucouleur are generally polygamous, only about 20% of men have more than one wife.

Wives cohabit in the same house, or each lives separately according to circumstances. The husband in fact moves around from place to place, even in the same compound. Each wife lives with and takes care of her children. Often women continue to live with their parents and received visits from their husbands, who lives with another wife, or even with his parents!

Marriages are preferred between cousins or in the larger family circle, but always within the same social class.

At the present time divorce is rife. On average most women will re-marry 4 times in their lives. This familial instability has a profound affect on women, and these effects are clear to see in their comportment.

Toucouleur social life displays a mosaic of indigenous and Islamic elements associated in complex and often poorly integrated combinations. Thus for example, wives, upon the death of their husbands, are returned to their respective families, while those with grown children who refuse to leave the conjugal compound come under the authority of the eldest son. He may give women in the compound, including his own mother, in marriage.

Yet despite the paternal system, the relationship between maternal uncle and nephew are as strong as in pre-Islamic times. Indeed, the Toucouleur teach their children that on the day of resurrection they will be recognised not by their own mother or father, but by their maternal uncle. The clans, or "woda", continue to be a socio-political institution, honouring particular totem - primarily a taboo.

Education/ schooling: Education in this region is not considered compulsory. School attendance is more frequent among boys than among girls.

Prenatal care and primary health care are great needs as can been seen from the Infant mortality rate for children up to one year of age in Mauritania (1988): - 126 deaths per 1,000

The increasing numbers of young people migrating to the towns is impacting traditional family life and disrupting the family structure. The young people are normally employed as agricultural labour but the growing population and unequal land distribution has meant there is no work for many. Hence the migration to urban centres.

With unemployment in Senegal around 40% many young people just 'hang around' doing nothing. They live in their family compound but make no contribution to productivity. Because of boredom, young people take to smoking drinking and other forms of unsavoury living. Ambition is low and discipline, non-existent. Many young girls turn to 'prostitution' at a very early age (some as young as 13 years), bartering 'favours' for material things like clothes, jewellery, alcohol and cigarettes. The incidence of pregnancy out of wedlock is a common occurrence.

Greetings are appropriate when coming across local people, especially in the bush, and the visitor should make the effort to learn these phrases.

Handshaking on meeting, regardless of how many times a day one meets the person, is normal.

When visiting a village it is polite to call upon the village headman or schoolteacher to explain that you want to spend the night there or visit the area.

Note: Muslim festivals are timed according to local sightings of various phases of the Moon and the dates given are approximations.

During the lunar month of Ramadan that precedes Korité (Eid al-Fitr), Muslims fast during the day and feast at night and normal business patterns may be interrupted. Some disruption may continue into Korité itself.

Korité and Tabaski (Eid al-Adha) last anything from two to ten days, depending on the region.

The Toucouleur strictly observe the Islamic categories of prohibited persons in marriage and marriage equality regulations.

A bride price, including the obligatory gifts of animals, or "nafore", goes to the couple to guarantee the stability of the union. Part of the nafore is turned over to the bride as a dowry, but if she seeks divorce, the nafore is restored to the husband. Toucouleur do not regard the levirate as obligatory.

Customarily, Toucouleur prefer to marry in Shawwal, the month that the Prophet Mohammed married Aisha. Fridays are reserved for virgins, while Mondays are for divorcees and widows.

The general term for marriage is "dewgal" (be nbadii dewgal). The verb form 'to get married' is "resde", but the process of getting married is divided into several steps.

The initial step is called the "yamol", from the verb "yamde" meaning "to ask for a woman's hand in marriage". At this stage the man's family approaches the family of the woman to discuss a desired marriage. The couple involved may or may not have made the choice, or approve of the choice themselves. In either case, the families must give their consent because marriage arrangements are carried out between families, and are considered family affairs.

The next step involves the older male members of both families who will go to the Mosque to "tie" the marriage. This step is called the "kumol", from the verb "humde" meaning "to tie". The symbol of this step is the sharing of kola nut (feccugol guru) which is provided by the man's family. Once this step has been taken the couple is considered married, but it still may be several months, or even longer, before the woman actually moves into her husbands compound.

This last step known as the "kuurtagol", the moving of the wife to the husbands compound is an expensive step, celebrated with jubilant and protracted festivities. While the preparations for this final step are being made, the wife may continue to live at her parent's compound, or elsewhere with other family members.

In the Pulaar culture a single man is not really respected and he is not really considered if still unwed after thirty.

When death seems imminent, the dying person's face is turned toward Mecca, and he is encouraged to recite the Shahada. If it is not possible, it is said for that person. The room is then fumigated with incense to keep the spirits at bay.

Immediately after death the cleric (in the region of Kayes a woman, usually the wife) performs the ritual washing of the corpse with water perfumed with herbs and roots.

Morning for a deceased relative is probably one of the only few times Toucouleur are given to any strong emotional display. Mourners, who arrive at the compound of a deceased, will announce their arrival with loud rending wailing cries and moans. The closer the relative and/or the friendship, or the higher the status of the person, the louder and more intense the mourning will be. These mourning procedures often last for a number of days as relatives arrive from far of regions to pay their respects. Naturally the more important a person, the larger the gathering of mourners will be.

According to Islamic law and tradition, the deceased is buried before sunset. Often a nightlong vigil will be held for the deceased, with prayers being made for his safe arrival in the paradise.

Depending on the region, a widow may be obliged to observe a compulsory period of official mourning and pining over a deceased husband. Such periods of mourning could be as long as 40 days, and often during such times the woman will cease all activities and stay in her hut, eating minimally, and sometimes even forgoing ablutions etc.

Poetry is very important, and is incorporated in the traditional use language among the older generation.

Dance also has a prominent place in Toucouleur social interaction. Traditional dance varies from region to region, but is generally accompanied by traditional drumming. Most celebrations incorporate some for of dancing. The younger generation in the true following of this age regularly arranges evenings of dance, where the music style is dominated by American type rap, and modern African jazz-style music.

Storytelling is also a very important art and communication form. Storytellers are paid for their services and perform such divers stories as the recounting of history and folklore, to the 'praise-singing' of dignitaries or events. Storytellers are a must at a wedding feast, and depending on the status of a family many might be hired for the occasion.

The main forms of recreation consist of socialising by visiting and chatting around the traditional tea, dancing and storytelling. In recent times it has become popular to arrange social evenings of debate over tea, as well as socio-cultural evenings where traditions and folklore is recounted and discussed.

The most important sports in the region are Football and West African wrestling. This form of hand to hand combat differs from Greco-Roman wrestling in that kicking and punching is allowed. The loser is the first one to hit the ground or have both feet of the ground. No other known traditional sports apart from wrestling exist.

Radio seems to be the most widely used form of media communication in West Africa. More people are however becoming TV owners - even amongst the Toucouleur in the smallest of villages!

Radio: - In 1981 there were 2 radio networks broadcasting to approx. 300,000 radio receivers. Today however there exist more than 20 different radio stations in Senegal - private, commercial and state subsidised. The numbers of private radio receivers are estimated to surpass 1,000,000.

TV: - Two TV stations and several satellite services exist providing services for approx. 40,000 TV sets.

Cinemas: - By 1975 there were 77 Cinemas in Senegal. Today there are those many just in the larger Dakar area!

Newspapers: - Many daily and weekly newspapers are now available in Senegal. Even the major international dailies are to be found as well as weekly and monthly news journals.